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| Chi Rho is one of the earliest Christian symbols. |
We have finally reached the part of Christendom history that the fog begins to lift and history becomes more clear.
Pagan Rome will now be defeated by Constantine, and in my opinion with the help of his mother Helena. Helena was a woman of low birth and she was probably born around 248 AD. Living through three great persecutions of Christians by emperors: Decius (249 AD–251 AD) Gallus (251 AD–253 AD) Valerian (253 AD–260 AD).
HELENA MOTHER OF CONSTANTINE
St. Ambrose said she was a daughter of an innkeeper, and a Greek speaker in Turkey; she was probably a "stable-maid." Her husband, Constantine’s father, Constantius Chlorus, was Serbian by birth. They met while Chlorus was still a soldier with no political rank. Helena and Chlorus may have been married (about 270 AD), but it isn’t clear. Some refer to her as a concubine, with no legal marriage but also his wife. If Hellena were a secret Christian, they could have been married secretly by a Catholic priest, and never ratified by a pagan ceremony. This would clear up her being both. Chlorus divorced her in 294, as a political move, most saying her humble origins were a liability, but more likely for political reasons.. They were married for more than 20 years. Constantine was born in 272 AD. Helena was banished, as a “concubine,” after the divorce and left to live alone near the court of Diocletian. She suffered like that for many years, but she was close to her son who also lived at the court.
Whether Helena was born to a Christian family and kept it secret, or whether she converted later in life, we don’t know. Church Historian Eusibius says she was converted by her son Constantine, after he became Emperor.
We think that Eusibius may be mistaken, though our evidence is only circumstantial. Some Eastern Orthodox think Helena was a Christian from childhood, which we think makes sense.
Helena never married after the divorce, hinting that she may have believed, at this time, that marriage is a sacrament, and remarriage is forbidden– while your spouse lives. Also Helana’s former husband, Chlorus, although a pagan, was the only one of the tetrarchy (4 rulers of the Empire) to not persecute Christians under his domain, mainly Britain and Gaul (France) during the great Diocletian's persecutions.
Maybe he still loved his wife and respected her religion, even though his ambitions forced him to divorce her. Also Constantine seemed to have a soft spot for Christians. He must have had more contact than we know and not just a superstitious understanding of Christianity – that the Cross was more than a good luck charm to use as a symbol in battle. This most likely came from his mother. Her fervor to find the holy places in the Holy Land exhibits someone who longed to go there for many years.
Where exactly Helena lived in her banishment is unknown, but she did keep close to her son Constantine. Constantine seemed to have had a very good relationship with his father too. They all seemed to love each other dearly. Constantine’s father most likely was forced to put away his wife, and had to marry the western Emperor Maximian’s daughter for alliance purposes. What better way to avoid assassination than making your rival your son-in-law.
Helena was devoted to her eldest grandson, Crispus Caesar, who Constantine made the ruler of Gaul, after he controlled the whole Empire. But a mysterious inner family turmoil led to the execution of Crispus and his stepmother, Fausta, Constantine’s second wife. The rumor was that Fausta had accused Crispus of attempting seduction or rape—hence Crispus’ execution in 326. Fausta, in turn, was supposedly denounced by Helena; who came across information that it was a false accusation, and Fausta was executed shortly afterwards. This caused Helena an amazing amount of grief. This is when Helena turned her sights on the Holy Land and determined to balance the scales of their tragic deaths by doing good. She would recover relics and build churches on important places in the Holy Land. This is also when Eusibius says she was converted.
As said above, if Helena was a hidden Christian, she could still have logically been hidden even after Constantine's victory. Rome was conquered but it was still essentially pagan. Even Constantine didn’t claim to be Christian; only accepting baptism on his deathbed. I think Helena felt responsible for the death of Fausta and Crispus, while also regretting the severity of her son Constantine; thus went to the Holy Land in reparation and also was not going to be hidden as a Christian any more, this implying she was a “convert,” at that time. We will never know the details.
THE RISE OF CONSTANTINE
After Jesus, few people have changed the course of western civilization as much as Constantine has.
From his teens, he was trained by his father to be a soldier and leader. He was very energetic, practical, and had a charismatic personality. After the divorce of his father Chlorus from Helena, Constantine lived (from about 293 to 305) in the Eastern Empire court of Diocletian – the senior emperor of the Eastern Empire (called an Augustus), and Galerius, his deputy (called a Caesar).
Constantine was both an imperial apprentice and as a hostage (ensuring the good conduct of his father). He learned how to rule in Diocletian’s palace at Nicomedia (Turkey) and also learned in the field on military campaigns. Constantine’s religious opinions are hidden from us at this time. But if his mother was a secret Christian then he may have been being informed about Christianity in his early years without being converted. The persecution of Christians was going on, but not in Constantine’s father’s domain; Chlorus refused to enforce the persecution in Britain and Gaul (France).
After Emperor Diocletian's experience in Rome with the comedian, Genesius, who converted to Christianity live on stage, he had never been the same. Over the winter of 304– 305 AD he kept within his palace. Diocletian had contracted an illness and his strength was failing. He decided to resign from office. Saying an emotional farewell to his soldiers, he abdicated in a ceremony at Nicomedia, Turkey and Maximian (his Augustus in the west) reluctantly resigned the same day in Milan, Italy.
Constantine escaped the Nicomedia court soon after Galerius succeeded Diocletian as the new supreme Augustus on May 1, 305 AD. Constantine made his way to Britain to his father—now also the emperor of the west (Augustus). Constantine seemed to get permission when Galerius was drunk. He feared being assassinated or taken prisoner, so he rode hard all across Europe– not stopping until he had reached Great Britain.
Unfortunately he was only able to spend about a year with his father, Chlorus, before his father died. Before he died he had joined in a war campaign against the Picts to the north of England with his father and won the admiration of all the soldiers. They saw a great leader and soldier.
At Constantine’s father’s death in York on July 25, 306 AD, his troops saluted Constantine as Augustus in his place. The army’s acclaim spread throughout Gaul where one province after another declared allegiance to Constantine.
At the time of Chlorus’ elevation to Augustus of the west, the de facto Head of the Empire, Galerius, appointed Severus to be his Caesar (deputy emperor) of the new Augustus, Chlorus. So at the death of Chlorus, Serverus was legally promoted to Augustus, and not Constantine.
Who was Severus?
Severus (ruled 306 -307 AD) as Caesar (deputy emperor) to the new emperor Chlorus (ruled 305–306) was given control of Pannonia, Italy, and Africa. Upon Constantius Chlorus' death (July 25, 306), Severus was made Augustus of the West by Galerius, who was the emperor of the East. He didn't want the more popular Constantine. But Severus became unpopular when he increased taxes in Italy. He also, for the first time in 500 years, taxed Rome, which was a tax free zone till then. On Oct. 28, 306 AD, a revolt broke out in Rome, led by Maxentius, son of the recently resigned emperor Maximian, who had abdicated with Diocletian. The following spring Severus marched on Rome to restore order, but his troops deserted him. He surrendered to Maximian and shortly afterward was executed.
Possible Civil War
The Empire was on the verge of another civil war, the very thing the tetrarch was supposed to have avoided. The system created leaders pulling in all directions. A meeting was needed to stem the tide of complete chaos.
Such a meeting took place in the Autumn of 308, consisting of Diocletian and Maximian Herculius the recently retired Augusti and the present ruling legitimate Augustus,Galerius Maximian. Galerius wanted neither Constantine nor Daia to be recognized as the Augustus of the west. He proposed Licinius be appointed Augustus of the West to replace the deceased Severus and he got both retired emperors Diocletian and Maximian Herculius to agree.
Maxentius, son of former Augustus Maximian Herculius, was declared an enemy of the state for his rebellion in Rome and the killing of Severus. Constantine was formally recognized as Caesar of the West– the successor to Licinius, and Daia was Caesar of the East– successor to Galerius.
A temporary stability was reached in ruling the Empire except for the rebellion of Maxentius in Rome. This problem was left to the western rulers of the empire to handle, Licinius and Constantine.
Conquering Italy
Constantine was willing to march on Italy and Rome for Liciinius and conquer the rebel Maxentius in Rome. Constantine commanded at least 100,000 troops. A majority were needed to guard the Rhine holding back the barbarians. Constantine put together an army of Romans, Germans, and Gauls of at least 40,000 men for his invasion of Italy. Nearly all were veterans, hardened and trained by years of war along the Rhine and in Britain.
According to pagan roman tradition, Constantine sought soothsayer's predictions on attacking Italy. They said the omens were against him. This could have a great psychological effect on his troops and not easily ignored. Regardless, in 312 AD Constantine, at the age of 38, led his army across the Alps hoping for a quick victory.
Because of Roman’s excellent roads, Constantine quickly descended on the first city of the north, Susa. Assaulting their gates by setting them on fire, also barraging them with stones and arrows. He quickly scaled the walls of the city, cutting their garrison to pieces. Constantine ordered his troops to spare the civilian population; keeping his troops from plundering the city. Constantine told them that they were liberators, not conquerors.
He headed down 40 miles to Turin. He was met by an Italian cavalry that outclassed and outnumbered his horsemen. But by some brilliant tactics, Constantine soon routed these troops, and they fled in retreat to the city but the city would not let them in.
Turin surrendered and welcomed Constantine as their emperor. Most of the northern cities did the same. They sent peace delegates and supplies. Constantine next moved on to Milan, where the leading men greeted him with honor and the citizens with cheers. Constantine stayed in Milan for a few days, giving his troops some well-deserved rest.
After being rested Constantine was still 400 miles from Rome. But there was a great army to the east led by the very competent general Pompeianus. If Constantine didn’t take care of Pompeianus he could be sandwiched between the troops of Rome and Pompeianus’.
He set his sights on the city of Verona and laid siege to it. This was a more difficult task than the other cities. Pompeianus was thought to be trapped in the city, but he found a way out and raised a large army and after a couple of days returned. Constantine was trapped on the open fields between the city walls and Adige River, he needed to fight and win; there was no way to retreat.
Constantine left a part of his army to continue the siege of the city, while he chose the best warriors to fight against Pompeianus’ army. He was outnumbered. He not only won, but led the charge himself, inspiring his troops to victory, on the front lines. He fought so valiantly that his soldiers loved him, but his commanders reprimanded him for his foolhardiness. The fighting lasted from morning to night and in the end Pompeianus lay dead. Exhausted by the battle and siege, Verona surrendered.
Though fatigued Constantine and his troops continued east conquering Aquileia, and Venice. He then turned back to the west, taking Ravenna, Modena, Venetia and freeing the highway to Rome – Via Flaminia. Now Constantine was to have the battle of his life– to conquer Rome.
Rome was in a panic. There were riots yelling “Constantine can not be stopped!”
Romans were big into signs, omens and soothsayers. It was customary before a major battle to get a prediction from some supernatural source. In Rome Maxentius consulted the sacred writings of Sybyl, which Rome had depended on for centuries. The prophecy was that Maxentius would triumph. He had already stored up grain from Africa to last a long time, and water was ample in Rome. But Maxentius was still anxious because of the protests of the people.
Shortly before the battle for Rome, God intervened. Constantine received a “vision” that would change the course of history. The Christian historian Eusebius wrote that Constantine told him of a cross of light that appeared in the heavens above his army and subsequently became his war standard; others said he saw it in a dream, but in any case it seems to be Constantine's testimony, that he was inspired.
The Christian scholar Lactantius wrote a year or two after conquering Rome that Constantine was told to put the sign of Chi (X) and Rho (P), on his soldiers’ shields-- the first two Greek letters in the name of Christ, often used as a symbol by Christians.
The next battle, called the “the Battle of the Bridge,'' would change the world.
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